Grammar-Quizzes › Clauses › Clause Structure › A Clause
DESCRIPTION | ||
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A phrase is a word group that:
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NOUN PHRASE (NP) | EXAMPLE | EXAMPLE |
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a six-week trip (Det + Adj + N) |
its beautiful cities (Genitive Det + Adj + N) |
DETERMINER PHRASE (DP) | WITH APPROXIMATIONS | WITH DEGREE MODIFIERS |
approximately two at least five just enough |
so few practically all not very many |
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VERB PHRASE (VP) | WITH SECONDARY VERBS | WITH DEGREE & FREQUENCY MODIFIERS |
are¹ going² to take [primary + secondary verbs] are going to take a six-week trip to Europe wants to see (V + Inf) wants to see its beautiful cities (V + Nonfinite Infin Cls) |
really wants hardly ever take enjoys very much enjoys often |
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ADJECTIVAL PHRASE (AdjP) | WITH NUMBER & OTHER MODIFIERS | WITH DEGREE MODIFIERS |
southern European (Adj + Adj) |
very beautiful (Degree Adv + Adj) rather expensive (Degree Adv + Adj) |
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ADVERBIAL PHRASE (AdvP) | PREPS WITH ADVERB MODIFIERS | ADVERBS WITH DEGREE MODIFIERS |
similarly to the way we traveled before (Adv + PP) differently than the way we remembered (Adv + PP) favorably of the places they saw (Adv + PP) completely in control exactly in the middle |
much too quickly (Degree Adv + Adv) much more slowly (Adv + Adv) fairly evenly ( Adv + Adv) very slowly ( Adv + Adv) quite well (Adv + Adv) |
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PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP) | AS COMPLEMENT TO (COMPLETES) THE VERB | AS ADJUNCT (ADD-ON) TO THE CLAUSE |
Prep Phrase (def.) |
They left in the summer. (P+ NP) She spoke to me. (P + Prn) He put the ID tag on his suitcase. (P + NP)
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They took a trip in the summer. (P+ NP) We went there because we want to see its beautiful cities. (P + Cls) He is traveling now instead of in the winter. (PP [PP[PP]]) |
Word Categories: N – Noun; V – Verb; Aux – Auxiliary; Adj – Adjective; Adv – Adverb; P –Preposition; Det –Determiner.
Phrasal Categories: NP – Noun Phrase; VP – Verb Phrase; AdjP – Adjective Phrase; AdvP – Adverb Phrase; PP – Prepositional Phrase; DP – Determinative Phrase.
Clausal Categories: Cls – clause; F – finite clause; NF – nonfinite clause (Ger – gerund; Inf – infinitive; PPart – past participle).
Word Functions: Subj – subject; Pred – predicate/predicator; Comp – complement: an element or elements required by a word or structure to complete its meaning in the clause (e.g., DO – direct object; IO – indirect object; PP - prep. phrase); Adjunct – adjunct: elements not required by an expression to complete its meaning (Subord – subordinator; Coord – coordinator); Supl – supplement: a clause or phrase added onto a clause that is not closely related to the central thought or structure of the main clause.
¹ In linguistic description, the primary verb is the verb marked for person or tense, which in this case is the auxiliary verb. [ARE going]. The secondary verb [going] complements the primary verb. See Primary vs. Secondary Verbs.
² In traditional grammar description, the main verb is the lexical verb, the verb with the dictionary meaning (not the auxiliary), [are GOING]. The combination of the auxiliaries and the lexical verb is a verb group. See Verb Group for "head" of a verb group.
DESCRIPTION | ||
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A nonfinite clause expresses meaning as a verb or as a verb with complements, but it is limited. It includes:
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CLAUSE TYPE | EXAMPLES | EXAMPLES |
(NF / NF Cls)
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to take — "infinitive" / "infinitival nonfinite clause" taking — "gerund" / "gerundial nonfinite clause" excited — "past participle" / past participial nonfinite clause" for me to take — ["for me" Subj + infinitive] to take me on a trip — [ infinitive + "me" IO] to take a trip — Inf NF [infinitive + "a trip" DO] taking a trip — Ger NF located in Paris — past participial NF
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our taking a six-week long trip to Europe — Ger NF (with a subject expressed as our) for us to take a six-week long trip to Europe — Inf NF (with a subject expressed as for us) having been to Paris before — Ger NF (w/ an earlier time frame expressed as having + past participle) to have taken a trip before — Inf NF (w/ an earlier time frame expressed as to have + past participle) |
Secondary Verb refers to the verb forms included in nonfinites (base/plain form, infinitive, gerund, past participle). Nonfinite Clause refers to the structure which may consist of just the secondary verb and/or its complements.
-al is a suffix for adjectives: infinitival, gerundial, participial, adjectival Either the noun form or the adjective form can be used in grammar descriptions.
Gerund – also called a Gerund-Participle as the two forms have been merged.
Gerund or Gerundial (Adj), Infinitive or Infinitival (Adj), Participle or Participial (Adj).
Gerund Phrase / Infinitive Phrase — These are no longer analyzed as phrases. The term "phrase" is reserved for the examples at the top of this page.
w/ – with; w/o – without
Also see Finite/Nonfinite | Gerunds with Subjects | Infinitives with Subjects | Expressing Earlier Time with Nonfinites.
(Huddleston 14 §1) (Payne Ch 14.2-3)
DESCRIPTION | ||
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A finite clause is one or more noun phrases together with a predicator (a verb, an action) that combine to express a complete thought. A finite clause can stand alone as a sentence. It includes:
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CLAUSE TYPE | EXAMPLE | EXAMPLE |
(Cls / F Cls)
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Leave. (imperative–subject is understood) ([NP] + VP) We are leaving. (NP + VP) We are taking a trip. (NP + VP + NP) We are going to take a trip. (NP + VP + NF Cls) We are going to take a six-week long trip to Europe. because [we want to see its cities.] (ConnPrep. + Cls) when [we want to see its cities.] (ConnPrep + Cls) that [we want to see its cities.] (Subordinator + Cls) and [we want to see its cities.] (Coordinator + Cls)
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We are travelers. (statement) We have our tickets. (statement) We know the dates. (statement) We age. (process) We wait in lines. (process) We travel. (action) We carry our baggage. (action) |
Also see Subject/Predicate | Comma Series | Semicolons | Dashes | Run-On Sentences | Complete Thought.
FRAGMENT (CLAUSE ELEMENT) |
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A fragment is a grouping of words that together do not express a complete thought or do not meet the requirements of being a grammatical sentence. |
In fact, nearly eighty-six million annually. |
All those amazing things to see! |
How about your visa? |
Having shoes, which are comfortable. |
And so do I. |
Over there. |
SENTENCE (CLAUSE) |
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A sentence (a clause) includes at least a subject and a predicate. It expresses a complete thought. |
Each year, millions of people travel to the U.S. |
There are so many amazing things to see!. |
What are you going to do about your visa? / Is your visa up to date? |
It is important to have a good pair of comfortable walking shoes. |
I have some good shoes too. |
The ticket office is over there. |
See Complete Thought.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE | |
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A structure with the subordinator that + clause completes the meaning expressed by the subject and predicate. (A subordinator marks the clause as subordinate but does not add meaning to the clause.) A structure headed by a relative pronoun—that, which, who, whom, whose, when, where—is a clause that modifies the noun before it. (The relative pronoun is a placeholder within the clause for a person, place, thing, etc.) |
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MAIN CLAUSE | SUBORDINATE CLS |
SUBJ-PREDICATE | COMPLEMENT TO SUBJ-PRED |
We know
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that we must take a passport. that we should pack our bags light. (that) the trip is going to be fun. that is a subordinator |
MAIN CLAUSE | THAT/WH + SUBORD CLS |
CLAUSE WITH NOUN | MODIFIER TO NOUN |
Marseilles and Nice are cities |
that are on the Mediterranean. that – relative pronoun |
We will sail to beautiful Malta, |
which is rich with history. which – relative pronoun |
We are travelers |
who love a good adventure. who – relative pronoun personal |
We like to go to places |
where the lifestyle is simple. where – relative pronoun locational |
This summer will be a time |
when we can relax. where – relative pronoun temporal |
SUBORDINATE STRUCTURE | |
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A structure with a preposition, such as before, after, because, while, though, adds extra information about the circumstances of the situation stated in the main clause. A preposition may accept a noun phrase, gerund or clause as its complement. In the examples below, the prepositional phrase (prep + clause) is a dependent of the main clause, and may be called an adjunct, connective or adverbial preposition. |
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MAIN CLAUSE | PREP + SUBORD CLAUSE |
CLAUSE | TEMPORAL PREP + CLS |
We are going to call our parents |
before we leave on our trip. after we leave on our trip. when we leave on our trip. whenever we can. before adjunct prep temporal |
CLAUSE | CONCESSION PREP + CLS |
We are going to take raincoats |
though the weather is good now. even though the weather is good. though – adjunct prep concession |
CLAUSE | CONDITIONAL PREP + CLS |
We buy things with Euros |
if we cannot use a credit card. unless we can use a credit card. whether or not we have a card. if – adjunct prep condition |
CLAUSE | CAUSE-EFFECT PREP + CLS |
We pack a lot of sunscreen |
because our skin is sun-sensitive. since our skin is sun-sensitive. because – adjunct prep reason |
CLAUSE | COMPARISON PREP + CLS |
We pack more things We pack as many things
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than we actually need. as we need. than – adjunct prep comparison |
CLAUSE | PURPOSE PREP + CLS |
We pack a lot of sunscreen
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so that we can protect our skin. in order to protect our skin. so that – adjunct prep purpose |
travelers (Eng-US) travellers (Eng-Br)
Related pages: Coordinated Clauses (and, but, or ), Relative Clauses, and Adjunct Prepositional Phrases.
See Grammar Notes for grammatical terms.
UNDERSTOOD THOUGHT |
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Much of what we have to say in speech can be understood from the context of the situation. Consequently, we shorten our comments omitting the parts we think the other person can see or know. |
Wonderful! Oh! Ah! Wow! Oh no! Ha! An exclamation is treated as a sentence with end punctuation even though it does not stand alone as a complete idea. |
Leave! Stop! Go! Halt! An imperative sentence is treated as a sentence with end punctuation. It has no subject, but it is complete and is understood through the context of the situation. |
The more taxes, the more complaining. The more the merrier. Expressions are not punctuated like most sentences. |
Yes. No. Affirmative and negative answers, such as yes and no may stand alone and be followed by a period or exclamation mark. |
EXPLICIT – CLEARLY STATED |
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In writing, we need to fully express an idea because we cannot expect the reader to see or know the context of the idea. |
It is wonderful! (it = the source of amazement, possibly news) "It is" (something that both listener and speaker know) is understood. Optionally include the subject and predicate. |
(You) leave! "You" is understood. Optionally include the subject. |
The more taxes (we have) , the more complaining (we do). Understood: the verbs / Optionally include the verbs. The more, the more |
Yes, that is correct. The question is understood. Optionally restate the question in the response. |
explicit (Adj) – fully and clearly expressed or demonstrated
understood (Adj) – not fully expressed and requiring context
Also see Discourse Markers. and Interjections.
(Swan 514)
NOT A SENTENCE |
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We had a wonderful time there. In fact, great! (This is a fragment. It does not have a subject or a predicate.) |
He crashed his car. Because he was texting and not paying attention. (Because is the head of an adjunct prepositional phrase, which cannot stand by itself as a sentence.) |
Put the book there. On my desk. (This is a fragment. It does not have a subject or a predicate.) |
The thing that amazed me. (This is a fragment. It does not have a subject or a predicate.) |
The city had fewer than a million people before became a world trading center. (The clause that complements before does not have a subject.) |
Keep bedrooms free of clutter where bedbugs can hide and seal wall cracks and crevices. (The subject is unclear in second clause. Are these crafty little bugs?) Pop-Q – "In fact" |
A SENTENCE |
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We had a wonderful time there; in fact, it was great! We had a wonderful time there. In fact, it was great! We had a wonderful, in fact, a great time there. (Add a subject, verb and punctuation.) See Examples |
He crashed his car because he was texting and not paying attention. Because he was texting and not paying attention, he crashed his car. (Separate the adjunct prep phrase with a comma when it is placed before the main clause.) |
Put the book there, on my desk. (Place a comma before the prepositional phrase; it is a comment that restates there.) |
The thing that amazed me was the architecture. (The main clause requires a subject and a predicate.) |
The city had fewer than a million people before it became a world trading center. (Add a subject to the clause in the adjunct prepositional phrase.) |
Keep bedrooms free of clutter where bedbugs can hide. Seal wall cracks and crevices. (The best solution is to separate the clause into its own sentence.) |
A written sentence needs a subject and a verb to be grammatical. (A sentence may be composed of one or more clauses.) A spoken sentence needs a complete thought and may rely more heavily on contextual information. See Complete Thought.
TRADITIONAL / ESL GRAMMAR |
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PHRASE |
A phrase is a group of words that together have a particular meaning, but do not express a complete thought or do not meet the requirements of being a grammatical sentence. Phrases are the smaller parts that make a clause. (Azar 12-3, 13-11, 14-1, 18-1) adverb phrase – Before falling asleep, she sucks her thumb. gerund phrase – Running around the room is tiring. infinitive phrase – To read her a story is helpful. noun clause phrase – [What she wants] is unimportant. participial phrase – The girl running around the room was noisy. past participle phrase – The girl tired of crying fell asleep. possessive phrase – Her crying attracted attention. prepositional phrase – The girl ran to everyone in the room. |
DEPENDENT CLAUSE |
"A dependent clause is not a complete sentence." (Azar 242) but the girl cried where the girl is sitting because the girl is tired although the girl is crying if the girl sleeps |
(See participial phrase and infinitive phrase above.)
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INDEPENDENT CLAUSE |
An independent clause includes at least a subject and a verb. It expresses a complete thought, and it can stand alone as a subject.
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LINGUISTIC DESCRIPTION |
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PHRASE |
Phrasal Categories "Constituents containing more than one word (more specifically, containing a central and most important word augmented by appropriate accompanying words that elaborate its contribution to the sentence) are called phrases, and are assigned to phrasal categories." (Huddleston 1 §4.2.2) The girl ran over very quickly to almost every person in the extremely noisy room. NP –noun phrase; The girl [determiner + noun] VP – verb phrase; ran over [verb + prep] PP – prepositional phrase; in the room [prep + det + noun] AdvP – adverb phrase; very quickly [adv + adv] AdjP – adjective phrase; extremely noisy [adv + adj] DetP – determinative phrase; almost every [adv + det]
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ADJUNCT |
An adjunct is modifier in a clause. It is not essential to completing the meaning of the clause. We can understand the clause without it. Adjuncts include semantic categories such as time, duration, frequency, degree, purpose, reason, result, concession, condition, and so on. (See Huddleston 8 §1-20) but the girl cried (coordinative clause) where the girl is sitting (locative preposition – PP) because the girl is tired (cause-effect preposition– PP) although the girl is crying (concession preposition– PP) if the girl sleeps (conditional preposition– PP) |
CLAUSE (NONFINITE) |
A nonfinite clause includes a secondary. A secondary (nonfinite) verb is one of three verb form types: infinitival, gerund-participle (-ing) or past participle (-ed). Clauses whose verbs are secondary are called nonfinite clauses. (Huddleston 14 §1-8) Gerund-participle clause
Past participle clause
Infinitival clause
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CLAUSE (FINITE) |
A finite clause includes a primary verb. A primary (finite) verb can be marked by tense and number. In English, these include the past and the present tense verb forms. All other tenses are formed with one or more verb types: auxiliaries, modals and participles. Clauses whose verbs are primary are called finite clauses. (Huddleston 3 §1.80)
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Word Categories: N – Noun; V – Verb; Aux – Auxiliary; Adj – Adjective; Adv – Adverb; P –Preposition; Det –Determiner.
Phrasal Categories: NP – Noun Phrase; VP – Verb Phrase; AdjP – Adjective Phrase; AdvP – Adverb Phrase; PP – Prepositional Phrase; DP – Determinative Phrase.
Clausal Categories: Cls – clause; F – finite clause; NF – nonfinite clause (Ger – gerund; Inf – infinitive; PPart – past participle).
Word Functions: Subj – subject; Pred – predicate/predicator; Comp – complement: an element or elements required by a word or structure to complete its meaning in the clause (e.g., DO – direct object; IO – indirect object; PP - prep. phrase); Adjunct – adjunct: elements not required by an expression to complete its meaning (Subord – subordinator; Coord – coordinator); Supl – supplement: a clause or phrase added onto a clause that is not closely related to the central thought or structure of the main clause.
Istanbul is an amazing city. Because of its rich history and breath-taking location. The city of Istanbul has twenty-seven districts. Which are very different in character. Throughout its long history. It has been a cultural melting pot.
Istanbul has diverse architectural styles. Because it has had diverse people. Greek, Roman and Byzantine structures. All stand in harmony in the city of Istanbul. Hagia Sophia is very famous. As it was once the world's largest cathedral. Construction of the Walls of Constantinople began under Constantine the Great. But had to be enlarged as the city grew.
Because Istanbul is located on a Peninsula. It is surrounded by water. You will see fishing boats and seafood markets. If you visit the port. Istanbul has two international airports. Atatürk International Airport on the European side. Sabiha Gökçen International Airport on the Asian side. The city has had huge growth recently. For example, about one million people in 1901 and now 13 million.
The city was and still is ideally situated. The crossroads to the great trade centers of Europe. Though occasionally it gets cold in the winter. The mild climate makes it an ideal place to live.
melting pot (expression) – mixing of cultures
architectural – building design styles
diverse – varying greatly, different
ideally – perfectly
is situated – is located; is placed, is built