Grammar-Quizzes › Clauses › Subordinate Clauses › Statements
Subordinate Statements
Restate quoted speech within a clause (reported or indirect speech)
Quote vs. Restate Speech
| QUOTED STATEMENT | |
|---|---|
A quoted statement begins with a main clause including the speaker and a verb such as say or tell, and is followed by a comma and the exact words of the quote, enclosed in quotation marks. The quoted speech may also be placed before the main clause: "It's raining here," she said. |
|
| MAIN CLAUSE | QUOTED SPEECH |
| SUBJ + PREDICATE | CONTENT CLAUSE |
She said, |
"It's raining here." |
She said, |
"It was raining here, but it's not now." |
She replied, |
"I'll meet you at this cafe tomorrow," |
She declared, |
"That umbrella is mine." |
| REPORTED STATEMENT | |
|---|---|
A reported statement also begins with the main clause, but instead is followed by the content of the quote as it relates to the speaker in time, person, place, and direction, at the moment of speaking. The subordinating marker that links the reported speech to the main clause. |
|
| MAIN CLAUSE | REPORTED SPEECH |
| SUBJ + PREDICATE | THAT + CONTENT CLAUSE |
She said |
that it was raining there. |
She informed us |
that it had been raining there, but it wasn't now. |
She replied |
that she would meet me at that cafe the next day. |
She declared |
that the umbrella was hers. |
Also see Said Synonyms and how to use Quotation Marks.
Subordinate That-Clause
Omit that
That — optional vs. included
| THAT – OPTIONAL | |
|---|---|
The subordinator that is often omitted after commonly used verbs, such as say, tell or think, especially when used in informal contexts. |
|
| MAIN CLAUSE | SUBORDINATE CLAUSE |
| SPECIAL VERB GROUP | CONTENT CLAUSE |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| THAT – INCLUDED | |
|---|---|
The subordinator that is included after "formal" verbs; that is, verbs used in more formal contexts such as public speaking, law, business, etc. (announce, admit, declare, explain, acknowledge) List |
|
| MAIN CLAUSE | SUBORDINATE CLAUSE |
| SUBJ + PREDICATE | THAT + CONTENT CLAUSE |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
That is also used as a determiner: I want this dog not that dog.
See Said Synonyms for other words .
Subordinate That-Clause
Adjust Tense and Perspective
Adjust Perspective (deixis)
| SAID | |
|---|---|
Pronouns, verb tense and number, location and time adjust to the point of view of the person in the main clause. |
|
| MAIN CLAUSE | SUBORDINATE CLAUSE |
My friend said, |
"I'll meet you at this cafe tomorrow." |
(1) Add a subordinating marker to relate that the quoted speech is being recalled by another person. |
|
(2) Adjust the subject, object and possessive pronouns to the speaker's perspective. |
|
(3) Adjust the verb tense to the speaker's perspective. |
|
(4) Adjust the adverbs and prepositional phrases to the speaker's perspective or time and place. |
|
|
|
| TOLD | |
|---|---|
If necessary, reword the sentence so that its meaning is clear. |
|
| MAIN CLAUSE | SUBORDINATE CLAUSE |
We told him, |
"You can show us your video in your office next Tuesday." |
(1) Add a subordinating marker to relate that the quoted speech is being recalled by another person. |
|
(2) Adjust the subject, object and possessive pronouns to the speaker's perspective. |
|
(3) Adjust the verb tense and to the speaker's perspective. |
|
(4) Adjust the adverbs and prepositional phrases for time and place to the speaker's perspective. |
|
|
|
¹Including that with the subordinate clause is optional with verbs such as say and think.
Deixis /ˈdaɪksɪs/
Relate words to a particular point of view
Deictic words
Deictic words, such as pronouns, time and location words, require contextual information; they are relative to the speaker. From my point of view ⇒ "I am here now." From your point of view (same time but different place) ⇒ "You are there now." From their point of view (different time and different place) ⇒ "She was there then."
Person Deixis
| MY CENTER | YOUR, HIS, HER, THEIR CENTER |
|---|---|
I / me → you |
You → I / me |
We / our → you |
You → we / us |
I / me → he / him |
He / him → I / me |
I / me→ she / her |
She / her → I / me |
We / us → they / them |
They / them → we / us |
I / me / we / us → it |
It → I / me / we / us |
| EARLIER | NOW | LATER |
|---|---|---|
before then |
← now → |
after then |
recently |
today |
in the future |
|
tomorrow |
the next day |
the day before |
yesterday |
|
last week |
this week |
next week |
| CENTER — NEAR | FAR |
|---|---|
here → |
there |
this city |
that city |
these towns |
those towns |
to my house |
from my house |
come |
go |
Deixis /ˈdaɪksɪs/ (N) / deictic (Adj) – indicating identity, time, or location from the perspective of one or more speakers. "Words are deictic if their semantic meaning is fixed but their denotational meaning varies depending on time and/or place." (Wiki – deixis)
Also see Prepositions for Time, Prepositions for Place, Adverbs for Time and Pop-Q "Deictic"
Express Cognitive States—think, believe, know
Restate opinion in indirect speech
Quote vs. Cognitive Statement
| QUOTED STATEMENT |
|---|
When using say or tell, the restatement is usually exact. It does nothing more than state the speech. |
She said, "It looks like it's raining here." |
She said, "It was raining just a minute ago." |
She said, "I'll meet you at the cafe tomorrow." |
She said, "That umbrella is mine." |
He said, "This is my last day working here." |
| STATEMENT & STATE OF MIND |
|---|
When using a word such as think, believe, know, etc., the restatement includes opinion about the person's cognitive or mental state as well. |
She thinks [that] it will rain there. (here, there) She thinks [that] it is raining there. She thought [that] it was raining there. |
She knows that it was raining just a minute ago. She knew that it had been raining. |
She remembers that we are going¹ to meet at the cafe tomorrow. She remembered that we were going to meet at the cafe the next day. |
She believes that his umbrella is hers. She believed that this umbrella was hers. |
He understands that this is his last work day here. He understood [that] that² was his last work day here. |
Related pages It as Subject, That–Clauses Cognitive States for other words expressing cognitive state.
Note that keeping the subordinted clause in the present tense for "general truth" may be considered both formal or informal usage. Preferences vary.
¹ When recalling an event in the past (remember, recall, recollect) the modal will changes to be going in reported speech. See Will / Be going in subordinated clauses.
² Omit the relative pronoun that before the determiner pronoun that (this) to avoid repetition or confusion.
Subordinate Clause Agreement
"Backshifting"
Tense Adjustment — "Backshifting"
| QUOTE | BACKSHIFTED | NOT BACKSHIFTED |
|---|---|---|
Quoted speech captures speech as it is spoken. No tense change is made, even when the speech act is in the past. |
In formal writing, the tense of the subordinated clause is 'backshifted' to the time frame of the verb in the main clause. |
In both formal and informal writing, one can use the present tense to state fact, how things exist, or how things behave. |
| GENERAL TRUTH – STATE OF EXISTENCE | AS VIEWED FROM PAST | AS A PRESENT TRUTH |
He said, "I love rain." He said, "The earth turns." He said, "I am Canadian." He says, "I was a smoker." |
He said that he loved rain. He said that the earth turned. He said that he was Canadian. — |
He said that he loves¹ rain. He said that the earth turns. He said that he is Canadian. He says that he was a smoker. (mixed time frames) |
| PAST MIXED | CHANGED STATUS | MIXED TENSES |
He said, "I was Canadian, but now I am a US citizen." |
He said that he had been Canadian, but now he was a US citizen. — |
He said that he was² Canadian, but now he is a US citizen. He says that he was Canadian, but now he is a US citizen. (mixed time frames) |
| SINGLE PRESENT EVENT | SAME-TIME PAST | |
He said, "I see a rainbow." |
He said that he saw a rainbow. |
*He said that he sees a rainbow. (incorrect) |
| SINGLE PAST EVENT | EARLIER EVENT | |
He said, "I forgot the umbrella." |
He said that he had forgotten the umbrella. |
²He said that he forgot the umbrella. (informal) |
| FUTURE EVENT | A TIME LATER THAN THE MOMENT HE SPOKE | A FUTURE TIME FROM NOW |
He said, "Rain is expected next week." |
He said that rain was expected the next week. (the coming week) |
He said that rain is expected next week. |
| FUTURE EVENT | A PAST PREDICTION | A FUTURE TIME FROM NOW |
He said, "Rain is expected Sunday." |
He said that rain was expected (last) Sunday. (could be a failed prediction) |
*He said that rain is expected (last) Sunday. (incorrect, impossible) |
¹ Some consider this informal usage; that is, not backshifting the verb tense when the meaning of "general truth" or "state of existence" occurs in a subordinated clause.
² This may be considered informal by some. However, the past may be used when no particular importance is placed on earlier or later timing of past actions
*Yellow highlighted words are examples of incorrect usage.
(Huddleston Obligatory vs. optional backshifting 3 §6.2.2)
Expressions
Retain the meaning
Expression vs. Reported Speech
| EXPRESSION |
|---|
Expressions are often "frozen". (An expression is two or more words that together take on a new meaning.) For this reason, it sounds awkward when tense, number or a pronoun is changed. |
"You are pulling my leg!" |
"You can't pull the wool over my eyes." |
"Here it is!" / "Here they are!" |
| REPORTED SPEECH |
|---|
When changing an expression to reported speech any change to tense, number or pronoun returns the phrase to its literal (word for word) meaning. It is often best to restate the expression in other words. |
She said that we were pulling her leg. (awkward pronoun use) |
He assured us that we couldn't fool him. (re-word) |
He shouted that he had found it / them. (re-word) |
Common Mistakes
Errors and Solutions
Error and Solution
| ERROR |
|---|
"You have to exercise and eat your vegetables." [impersonal you] He said that we have to exercise and eat our vegetables. |
" The phone rang when I had just opened the front door to leave." [back shifting a quote that alread contains the past perfect]
He explained that the phone had rung when he had just opened the door to leave when.
|
| SOLUTION |
|---|
He said that you have to exercise and eat your vegetables. informal He said that everyone has to exercise and eat [his / her/ their] vegetables. (See Gender & Pronouns.) He said that one has to exercise and eat one's vegetables. very formal You is often used informally as an impersonal pronoun "anyone". It sounds awkward to adjust impersonal "you" in a subordinated clause. See impersonal pronouns |
He explained that the phone rang as he was leaving. [simplify by avoid using tense in the when-clause] He explained that the phone rang after he had opened the door to leave. He explained that first he opened the door and then he heard the phone ring. We can use past and past perfect to contrast earlier and later past events. However, we can not add a third past event. Reword the sentence and simplify the tenses. Or state the events as a series of past events in the order that each occurred. |
Grammar Notes (Advanced)
Traditional and Linguistic Description
Traditional and Linguistic Descriptions
| TRADITIONAL / ESL DESCRIPTION |
|---|
Direct and Indirect speech "Reported speech refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has said. No quotation marks are used. If the reporting verb (the main verb of the sentence, e.g., said) is simle past, the verb in the noun clause will usually also be in a past form…" (Azar 12.6–7)
That before a clause "That is a conjunction with little real meaning . It is simply a connector – it shows that a clause forms part of a larger sentence."
|
A that clauses is used:
(Swan 583) |
| LINGUISTIC DESCRIPTION |
|---|
Direct reported speech gives the actual wording of the original. The major difference between direct and indirect speech is deixis. The deictic expressions are interpreted in relation to the original utterance, whereas in indirect speech they are interpreted wholly or predominantly in relation to the act of reporting. (1025) deictic – specifying identity or spatial or temporal location from the perspective of one or more of the participants in an act of speech or writing, in the context of either an external situation or the surrounding discourse, as we, you, here, there, now, then, this, that, the former, or the latter.
that – marker of subordination in declarative clauses (Huddleston 951) "Reported speech is syntactically subordinate. It has the form of a content clause funtioning as a complement of the reporting verb: say: the reported speech is thus embedded within a matrix clause." (Huddleston 11 §9.1) Including that with the subordinate clause is optional with verbs such as say and think. We tend to leave it out in speech and include it in writing. That is required in more formal contexts. (Azar 253) (Huddleston 953) (Quirk 681) that + clause content clause or finite clause |
That omission:
(Swan 584)
|
Word Categories: N – Noun; V – Verb; Aux – Auxiliary; Adj – Adjective; Adv – Adverb; P –Preposition; Det –Determiner.
Phrasal Categories: NP – Noun Phrase; VP – Verb Phrase; AdjP – Adjective Phrase; AdvP – Adverb Phrase; PP – Prepositional Phrase; DP – Determinative Phrase.
Clausal Categories: Cls – clause; F – finite clause; NF – nonfinite clause (Ger – gerund; Inf – infinitive; PPart – past participle).
Word Functions: Subj – subject; Pred – predicate/predicator; Comp – complement: elements required by an expression to complete its meaning (DO – direct object; IO – indirect object); Adjunct – adjunct: elements not required by an expression to complete its meaning (Subord – subordinator; Coord – coordinator); Supl – supplement: a clause or phrase added onto a clause that is not closely related to the central thought or structure of the main clause.
- Azar, Betty Schrampfer, and Stacy A. Hagen. Understanding and Using English Grammar. 4th ed., Pearson Education, 2009.
- Biber, Douglas, and Stig Johansson, et al. Longman Grammar Of Spoken And Written English. Pearson Education, 1999.
- "Deixis." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 3 May 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deixis. Accessed on 25 Aug. 2016.
- Huddleston, Rodney D., and Geoffrey K. Pullum. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge UP, 2002.
- Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. 3rd ed., Oxford UP, 2005.
Practice 1
On the Road
Change the direct speech to reported (indirect) speech.
- Select the response from the list that best completes the sentence.
- Compare your response to the feedback by clicking the "check 1-12" button at the bottom, or click the "Check" button to the left as you go.
Practice 2
"Catching Up"
Read
JASON: Tom's family is considering moving to Vancouver.
KATE: Interesting! Tom's father is Canadian.
KATE: Maybe, he wants to return.
JASON: His father received a good job offer.
KATE: The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.
JASON: Tom has never moved before; it's hard.
KATE: I'll miss Tom a lot.
catch up with someone – share news
The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence. (expression) – has a similar meaning to: a man / woman is never satisfied with what he / she has.
Formal, informal or Incorrect?
- Select a response formal, informal or incorrect.
- Compare your response to the feedback by clicking the "check 13-20" button at the bottom, or click the "Check" button to the left as you go.
Practice 3
Cartoon Activity
Select or create a cartoon and retell the conversation as reported speech (past tense).
Select one from gocomics.com (The example below is from a "Peanuts" cartoon strip.)
Or create your own. http://plasq.com/ (30-day free trial)
Edit for Errors
- Edit the conversation and include punctuation, if needed.
- Compare your response to the feedback by clicking the "check 21-30" button at the bottom, or click the "Check" button to the left as you go.