Cause & Effect
Indicating a causal relationship
The Girl Effect is about girls and boys, and moms and dads, and villages, towns and countries. Poverty, AIDs, hunger and war—
"What if there were a solution that would turn this 'sinking ship' around"? — Kristof
Stating Cause and Effect
| CAUSE — EFFECT | |
|---|---|
Consequently serves as a transition from one sentence to the next. It introduces an effect of situation stated in the sentence before it. A comma is used after the connective (linking) adverb. |
|
| CAUSE | LINKING ADV + EFFECT |
She had no other options. |
Consequently, she married at thirteen. |
She was not protected. |
As a result, she had a baby at thirteen. |
She had no access to health education or medical clinics. |
Therefore, she was more likely to get HIV. |
There was poor sanitation in the village. |
As a consequence, she had health problems. |
The water was impure in her village. |
For this reason, she suffered from parasites. |
She had no shoes, warm clothes or blankets. |
For all these reason, she was often cold. |
She had no resources to grow food. (land, seeds, tools) |
Thus, she was hungry. |
She had not been given a chance, |
so² she was fighting for survival. |
| EFFECT — CAUSE | |
|---|---|
Because joins one clause with another clause. It introduces a cause (reason) for the situation stated in the other clause. A comma is not used when the connector is in mid-sentence position. |
|
| EFFECT | PREP. CAUSE |
She married at thirteen |
because she had no other options. |
She had a baby at thirteen |
as she was not protected. |
She was more likely to get HIV |
since she had no access to health education or clinics. |
She had health problems |
because of¹ poor sanitation in the village. (NP) |
She suffered from parasites |
on account of¹ the impure water in her village. (NP) |
She was often cold |
due to¹ not having shoes, warm clothes or blankets. (NP) |
She was hungry |
for the reason that she had no resources to grow food. |
She was fighting for survival |
since she had not been given a chance. |
adolescence (n.) – the time, usually between the ages of 12 and 18, when a young person is developing into an adult
option (n.) – a choice one can make when in a particular situation
parasites (n.) – worms, insects and other organisms that live in a person's body and cause the person to be sick
resources – basic materials needed to do a job (land, seeds, tools)
sanitation (n.) – The protection of public health by removing and treating waste, dirty water etc.
unprotected (adj.) – Someone or something that is not kept safe from harm, hurt or damage.
¹noun phrase (NP) verb phrase (VP) See Grammar Notes for details
²so (adv.) – a conjunction, joins a cause-clause to an effect-clause.
Cause & Result
Expressions
| INTRODUCES EFFECT | |
|---|---|
Both verbs, cause and result, are used in the active form to introduce an effect. The verb cause focuses on the source, while the verb+prep. result in focuses on the the result. Result is always followed by a prepositional phrase (in). |
|
| CAUSE + VP | EFFECT |
Poor childhood education causes |
illiteracy. |
Poor childhood education results in |
illiteracy. |
Poor childhood education *results |
illiteracy. |
| INTRODUCES CAUSE | |
|---|---|
Both verbs, cause and result, introduce a cause. Cause may be used in the passive form with a by phrase. Result does not take the passive. It is followed by a prepositional phrase (from). |
|
| EFFECT | VP + CAUSE |
Illiteracy |
is caused by poor childhood education. |
Illiteracy |
results from poor childhood education. |
Illiteracy |
*is resulted by¹poor childhood education. |
illiteracy (n.) – inability to read or write (cannot)
¹Note that result by has a different meaning. See Results by The reason is + Clause
*Yellow highlighting indicates example of incorrect usage.
Cause
Expressions
Cause "cuz"
| BECAUSE | |
|---|---|
Because begins a clause giving reason. The expression because of is used before a noun phrase giving reason. Informal shortened forms are often confused with cause. |
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| PREPOSITION + CAUSE | |
Because of poor childhood education, there is illiteracy. (NP) |
|
Because there is poor childhood education, there is illiteracy. (clause) |
|
*Cause of poor childhood education, there is illiteracy. |
|
| SHORTENED FORM – INFORMA | |
'Cause you asked, we'll come and help you. (in speech) |
|
"Cuz you love me,I can do anything." (in song) |
|
i cant come bcuz i hav to work.¹ |
|
| CAUSE |
|---|
Cause can be a noun with a modifying phrase / clause. Or cause can be a verb (results in; tbe the cause of; bring about). The cause and effect are stated within the clause. |
| NOUN |
The cause of illiteracy is poor childhood education. (NP) |
The cause identified by researchers is poor childhood education. |
The cause requires urgent attention. |
| VERB |
Poor childhood education causes illiteracy. (results in) |
Illiteracy is caused by poor childhood education. (passive voice) |
|
¹In informal speech and writing (texting), “because” is shortened — 'cause, cuz, becuz; In text messages —bcz: cant come today bcz I hav to work
If Only Because
Stating a minor reason
| A MAIN REASON |
|---|
Use because to indicate a reason of primary importance, a main or major reason. ("There may be other reasons as well, but this is the one in focus".) |
We are confident because we are getting your overwhelming support. |
She needs a job because she needs to be able to support herself. (home, food, etc.) |
Give her praise because she's a good student. |
She visits the cafe because she wants to check on her employees. |
She married at thirteen because she had no other options. |
| A MINOR REASON IS A SUFFICIENT REASON |
|---|
When a range of reasons exist, use if only because to indicate even a minor reason being sufficient for the effect. "if for no other (better) reason than…" or "because at least…" |
We are confident if only because we are making progress. (a minor, minimal reason – This implies that much more needs to be done.) |
She needs a job if only because she needs something to occupy herself everyday. (a minor, trivial reason) |
Give her praise if only because she has shown up to school on time everyday. (a minimal reason) |
She visits the cafe if only because she wants a bite to eat. |
She married at thirteen if only because she needed a roof over her head. |
trivial (adj) – not serious, important, or valuable
Punctuation
Clause Order
Mid vs Initial Placement
| INITIAL |
|---|
When because begins a sentence with a reason clause, it is separated from the effect clause by a comma..A linking adverbs, such as consequently, is separated with a comma from the effect clause. |
| CONNECTOR |
|
| CONNECTIVE / LINKING ADVERB |
|
| MID-SENTENCE |
|---|
When because is placed mid-sentence after an effect clause and before a cause clause, no comma is used. However, a comma is used when the because clause is not related to the main clause as cause-effect (especially with neg. verbs). |
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Related page: Because, Fragments
Pop-Q "Not because"
Grammar Notes
Traditional Grammar and Linguistic Description
Advanced
| TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR | LINGUISTIC DESCRIPTION |
|---|---|
In traditional grammar — because, since, as— are connectors that introduce adverb clauses. They relate why something occurred. |
In current linguistic description —because as since, as, etc.— are included in the preposition category. (Note that in this description, prepositions can be complemented by a wide variety of sentence structures and are not limited to object complements.) |
| BECAUSE | |
because |
because, as, since, inasmuch as |
| BECAUSE OF | |
because of, due to Sometimes, usually in formal writing, due to is followed by a noun clause introduced by the fact that… Like adverb clauses, these phrases can also follow main clauses. |
because of, due to, owing to, on account of |
CATEGORIES: NP –noun phrase; N – noun; VP – verb phrase; V – verb; Det – determiner; PP – prepositional phrase; P – preposition; AdvP – adverb phrase; Adv – adverb; AdjP– adjective phrase; Adj – adjective
Resources
- Kristoff, WuDunn, Half the Sky : turning oppression into opportunity for women worldwide. New York : Alfred A. Knopf, 2009.Print. http://www.halftheskymovement.org/
- WHO (The World Health Organization) 2010, http://www.who.int/en/
- Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum. "Words with PP Complements." The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Print. (CaGEL 616-26)
- Swan, Michael. "Because." Practical English Usage. 4th ed. 2009: Oxford University Press. Print. (Swan 94)
Practice 1
The Girl (and Boy) Effect
Read
When people began to question why the death rate of females in certain parts of Africa was so much greater than the death rate of males, they started to look for reasons. Below, are some cause and effect relationships.
Schools for girls were built. Girls had a chance to learn about health and life skills. Girls learned about health skills. They improved the sanitation of their villages. The girls felt proud to have a uniform. They were more likely to attend school everyday. The family members of the girls walked them to school.
They didn't want other males in the village to taunt the girls. The family members of the girls walked them to school. The girls avoided abduction and pregnancy. After graduation, the girls were more likely to start small businesses. They had mathematical and accounting skills. Some graduates became valued business owners. They were invited to serve on business councils. Their community status rose. They were able to vote on improving water and sanitation. Health conditions improvedin villages. More babies and children survived.
abduction (n.) – being taken away by force; kidnapping
avoid (v.) – to prevent something bad from happening
graduation (n.) – the time when a person completes a high school or university degree
more likely (adj) – almost certain
pregnancy (n.) – being 'with child'; having a child growing inside
sanitation (n.) – the protection of public health by removing and treating waste, dirty water etc.
skill (n.) – an ability to do something well, especially because it is learned and practiced / practised
status (n.) – the social or professional rank or position, considered in relation to other people
survive (v.) – to continue to live after an accident,catastrophe, war, or illness
taunt (v.) – to try to make someone angry or upset by saying unkind things to them
uniform (n.) – a particular type of clothing worn by all the members of a group or organization
valued (adj.) – important, useful
Add cause-effect connectors.
- Select the response from the list that best completes the sentence.
- Compare your response to the answer by clicking the "check" button.
Practice 2
Health Care
Effect clauses — stating result (logic)
- Select the response from the list that best completes the sentence.
- Compare your response to the answer by clicking the "check" button.
Practice 3
Gender preference
Punctuate the sentences.
- Select the response from the list that best completes the sentence.
- Compare your response to the answer by clicking the "check" button.